The future of human habitation in the sea is taking shape in an abandoned quarry on the border of Wales and England. There, the ocean-exploration organization Deep has embarked on a multiyear quest to enable scientists to live on the seafloor at depths up to 200 meters for weeks, months, and possibly even years.

“Aquarius Reef Base in St. Croix was the last installed habitat back in 1987, and there hasn’t been much ground broken in about 40 years,” says Kirk Krack, human diver performance lead at Deep. “We’re trying to bring ocean science and engineering into the 21st century.”

This article is part of our special report Top Tech 2025.

Deep’s agenda has a major milestone this year—the development and testing of a small, modular habitat called Vanguard. This transportable, pressurized underwater shelter, capable of housing up to three divers for periods ranging up to a week or so, will be a stepping stone to a more permanent modular habitat system—known as Sentinel—that is set to launch in 2027. “By 2030, we hope to see a permanent human presence in the ocean,” says Krack. All of this is now possible thanks to an advanced 3D printing-welding approach that can print these large habitation structures.

How would such a presence benefit marine science? Krack runs the numbers for me: “With current diving at 150 to 200 meters, you can only get 10 minutes of work completed, followed by 6 hours of decompression. With our underwater habitats we’ll be able to do seven years’ worth of work in 30 days with shorter decompression time. More than 90 percent of the ocean’s biodiversity lives within 200 meters’ depth and at the shorelines, and we only know about 20 percent of it.” Understanding these undersea ecosystems and environments is a crucial piece of the climate puzzle, he adds: The oceans absorb nearly a quarter of human-caused carbon dioxide and roughly 90 percent of the excess heat generated by human activity.

Deep is looking to build an underwater life-support infrastructure that features not just modular habitats but also training programs for the scientists who will use them. Long-term habitation underwater involves a specialized type of activity called saturation diving, so named because the diver’s tissues become saturated with gases, such as nitrogen or helium. It has been used for decades in the offshore oil and gas sectors but is uncommon in scientific diving, outside of the relatively small number of researchers fortunate enough to have spent time in Aquarius. Deep wants to make it a standard practice for undersea researchers.

The first rung in that ladder is Vanguard, a rapidly deployable, expedition-style underwater habitat the size of a shipping container that can be transported and supplied by a ship and house three people down to depths of about 100 meters. It is set to be tested in a quarry outside of Chepstow, Wales, in the first quarter of 2025.

The Vanguard habitat, seen here in an illustrator’s rendering, will be small enough to be transportable and yet capable of supporting three people at a maximum depth of 100 meters.Deep

The plan is to be able to deploy Vanguard wherever it’s needed for a week or so. Divers will be able to work for hours on the seabed before retiring to the module for meals and rest.

One of the novel features of Vanguard is its extraordinary flexibility when it comes to power. There are currently three options: When deployed close to shore, it can connect by cable to an onshore distribution center using local renewables. Farther out at sea, it could use supply from floating renewable-energy farms and fuel cells that would feed Vanguard via an umbilical link, or it could be supplied by an underwater energy-storage system that contains multiple batteries that can be charged, retrieved, and redeployed via subsea cables.

The breathing gases will be housed in external tanks on the seabed and contain a mix of oxygen and helium that will depend on the depth. In the event of an emergency, saturated divers won’t be able to swim to the surface without suffering a life-threatening case of decompression illness. So, Vanguard, as well as the future Sentinel, will also have backup power sufficient to provide 96 hours of life support, in an external, adjacent pod on the seafloor.

Data gathered from Vanguard this year will help pave the way for Sentinel, which will be made up of pods of different sizes and capabilities. These pods will even be capable of being set to different internal pressures, so that different sections can perform different functions. For example, the labs could be at the local bathymetric pressure for analyzing samples in their natural environment, but alongside those a 1-atmosphere chamber could be set up where submersibles could dock and visitors could observe the habitat without needing to equalize with the local pressure.

As Deep sees it, a typical configuration would house six people—each with their own bedroom and bathroom. It would also have a suite of scientific equipment including full wet labs to perform genetic analyses, saving days by not having to transport samples to a topside lab for analysis.

“By 2030, we hope to see a permanent human presence in the ocean,” says one of the project’s principals

A Sentinel configuration is designed to go for a month before needing a resupply. Gases will be topped off via an umbilical link from a surface buoy, and food, water, and other supplies would be brought down during planned crew changes every 28 days.

But people will be able to live in Sentinel for months, if not years. “Once you’re saturated, it doesn’t matter if you’re there for six days or six years, but most people will be there for 28 days due to crew changes,” says Krack.

It’s a very ambitious vision, and Deep has concluded that it can be achieved only with advanced manufacturing techniques. Deep’s manufacturing arm, Deep Manufacturing Labs (DML), has come up with an innovative approach for building the pressure hulls of the habitat modules. It’s using robots to combine metal additive manufacturing with welding in a process known as wire-arc additive manufacturing. With these robots, metal layers are built up as they would be in 3D printing, but the layers are fused together via welding using a metal-inert-gas torch.

At Deep’s base of operations at a former quarry in Tidenham, England, resources include two Triton 3300/3 MK II submarines. One of them is seen here at Deep’s floating “island” dock in the quarry. Deep

During a tour of the DML, Harry Thompson, advanced manufacturing engineering lead, says, “We sit in a gray area between welding and additive process, so we’re following welding rules, but for pressure vessels we [also] follow a stress-relieving process that is applicable for an additive component. We’re also testing all the parts with nondestructive testing.”

Each of the robot arms has an operating range of 2.8 by 3.2 meters, but DML has boosted this area by means of a concept it calls Hexbot. It’s based on six robotic arms programmed to work in unison to create habitat hulls with a diameter of up to 6.1 meters. The biggest challenge with creating the hulls is managing the heat during the additive process to keep the parts from deforming as they are created. For this, DML is relying on the use of heat-tolerant steels and on very precisely optimized process parameters.

Besides manufacturing, there are other challenges that are unique to the tricky business of keeping people happy and alive 200 meters underwater. One of the most fascinating of these revolves around helium. Because of its narcotic effect at high pressure, nitrogen shouldn’t be breathed by humans at depths below about 60 meters. So, at 200 meters, the breathing mix in the habitat will be 2 percent oxygen and 98 percent helium. But because of its very high thermal conductivity, “we need to heat helium to 31–32 °C to get a normal 21–22 °C internal temperature environment,” says Rick Goddard, director of engineering at Deep. “This creates a humid atmosphere, so porous materials become a breeding ground for mold”.

There are a host of other materials-related challenges, too. The materials can’t emit gases, and they must be acoustically insulating, lightweight, and structurally sound at high pressures.

Deep’s proving grounds are a former quarry in Tidenham, England, that has a maximum depth of 80 meters. Deep

There are also many electrical challenges. “Helium breaks certain electrical components with a high degree of certainty,” says Goddard. “We’ve had to pull devices to pieces, change chips, change [printed circuit boards], and even design our own PCBs that don’t off-gas.”

The electrical system will also have to accommodate an energy mix with such varied sources as floating solar farms and fuel cells on a surface buoy. Energy-storage devices present major electrical engineering challenges: Helium seeps into capacitors and can destroy them when it tries to escape during decompression. Batteries, too, develop problems at high pressure, so they will have to be housed outside the habitat in 1-atmosphere pressure vessels or in oil-filled blocks that prevent a differential pressure inside.

When you’re trying to be the SpaceX of the ocean, questions are naturally going to fly about the feasibility of such an ambition. How likely is it that Deep can follow through? At least one top authority, John Clarke, is a believer. “I’ve been astounded by the quality of the engineering methods and expertise applied to the problems at hand and I am enthusiastic about how DEEP is applying new technology,” says Clarke, who was lead scientist of the U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit. “They are advancing well beyond expectations…. I gladly endorse Deep in their quest to expand humankind’s embrace of the sea.”

The future of human habitation in the sea is taking shape in an abandoned quarry on the border of Wales and England. There, the ocean-exploration organization Deep has embarked on a multiyear quest to enable scientists to live on the seafloor at depths up to 200 meters for weeks, months, and possibly even years.

“Aquarius Reef Base in St. Croix was the last installed habitat back in 1987, and there hasn’t been much ground broken in about 40 years,” says Kirk Krack, human diver performance lead at Deep. “We’re trying to bring ocean science and engineering into the 21st century.”

This article is part of our special report Top Tech 2025.

Deep’s agenda has a major milestone this year—the development and testing of a small, modular habitat called Vanguard. This transportable, pressurized underwater shelter, capable of housing up to three divers for periods ranging up to a week or so, will be a stepping stone to a more permanent modular habitat system—known as Sentinel—that is set to launch in 2027. “By 2030, we hope to see a permanent human presence in the ocean,” says Krack. All of this is now possible thanks to an advanced 3D printing-welding approach that can print these large habitation structures.

How would such a presence benefit marine science? Krack runs the numbers for me: “With current diving at 150 to 200 meters, you can only get 10 minutes of work completed, followed by 6 hours of decompression. With our underwater habitats we’ll be able to do seven years’ worth of work in 30 days with shorter decompression time. More than 90 percent of the ocean’s biodiversity lives within 200 meters’ depth and at the shorelines, and we only know about 20 percent of it.” Understanding these undersea ecosystems and environments is a crucial piece of the climate puzzle, he adds: The oceans absorb nearly a quarter of human-caused carbon dioxide and roughly 90 percent of the excess heat generated by human activity.

Deep is looking to build an underwater life-support infrastructure that features not just modular habitats but also training programs for the scientists who will use them. Long-term habitation underwater involves a specialized type of activity called saturation diving, so named because the diver’s tissues become saturated with gases, such as nitrogen or helium. It has been used for decades in the offshore oil and gas sectors but is uncommon in scientific diving, outside of the relatively small number of researchers fortunate enough to have spent time in Aquarius. Deep wants to make it a standard practice for undersea researchers.

The first rung in that ladder is Vanguard, a rapidly deployable, expedition-style underwater habitat the size of a shipping container that can be transported and supplied by a ship and house three people down to depths of about 100 meters. It is set to be tested in a quarry outside of Chepstow, Wales, in the first quarter of 2025.

The Vanguard habitat, seen here in an illustrator’s rendering, will be small enough to be transportable and yet capable of supporting three people at a maximum depth of 100 meters.Deep

The plan is to be able to deploy Vanguard wherever it’s needed for a week or so. Divers will be able to work for hours on the seabed before retiring to the module for meals and rest.

One of the novel features of Vanguard is its extraordinary flexibility when it comes to power. There are currently three options: When deployed close to shore, it can connect by cable to an onshore distribution center using local renewables. Farther out at sea, it could use supply from floating renewable-energy farms and fuel cells that would feed Vanguard via an umbilical link, or it could be supplied by an underwater energy-storage system that contains multiple batteries that can be charged, retrieved, and redeployed via subsea cables.

The breathing gases will be housed in external tanks on the seabed and contain a mix of oxygen and helium that will depend on the depth. In the event of an emergency, saturated divers won’t be able to swim to the surface without suffering a life-threatening case of decompression illness. So, Vanguard, as well as the future Sentinel, will also have backup power sufficient to provide 96 hours of life support, in an external, adjacent pod on the seafloor.

Data gathered from Vanguard this year will help pave the way for Sentinel, which will be made up of pods of different sizes and capabilities. These pods will even be capable of being set to different internal pressures, so that different sections can perform different functions. For example, the labs could be at the local bathymetric pressure for analyzing samples in their natural environment, but alongside those a 1-atmosphere chamber could be set up where submersibles could dock and visitors could observe the habitat without needing to equalize with the local pressure.

As Deep sees it, a typical configuration would house six people—each with their own bedroom and bathroom. It would also have a suite of scientific equipment including full wet labs to perform genetic analyses, saving days by not having to transport samples to a topside lab for analysis.

“By 2030, we hope to see a permanent human presence in the ocean,” says one of the project’s principals

A Sentinel configuration is designed to go for a month before needing a resupply. Gases will be topped off via an umbilical link from a surface buoy, and food, water, and other supplies would be brought down during planned crew changes every 28 days.

But people will be able to live in Sentinel for months, if not years. “Once you’re saturated, it doesn’t matter if you’re there for six days or six years, but most people will be there for 28 days due to crew changes,” says Krack.

It’s a very ambitious vision, and Deep has concluded that it can be achieved only with advanced manufacturing techniques. Deep’s manufacturing arm, Deep Manufacturing Labs (DML), has come up with an innovative approach for building the pressure hulls of the habitat modules. It’s using robots to combine metal additive manufacturing with welding in a process known as wire-arc additive manufacturing. With these robots, metal layers are built up as they would be in 3D printing, but the layers are fused together via welding using a metal-inert-gas torch.

At Deep’s base of operations at a former quarry in Tidenham, England, resources include two Triton 3300/3 MK II submarines. One of them is seen here at Deep’s floating “island” dock in the quarry. Deep

During a tour of the DML, Harry Thompson, advanced manufacturing engineering lead, says, “We sit in a gray area between welding and additive process, so we’re following welding rules, but for pressure vessels we [also] follow a stress-relieving process that is applicable for an additive component. We’re also testing all the parts with nondestructive testing.”

Each of the robot arms has an operating range of 2.8 by 3.2 meters, but DML has boosted this area by means of a concept it calls Hexbot. It’s based on six robotic arms programmed to work in unison to create habitat hulls with a diameter of up to 6.1 meters. The biggest challenge with creating the hulls is managing the heat during the additive process to keep the parts from deforming as they are created. For this, DML is relying on the use of heat-tolerant steels and on very precisely optimized process parameters.

Besides manufacturing, there are other challenges that are unique to the tricky business of keeping people happy and alive 200 meters underwater. One of the most fascinating of these revolves around helium. Because of its narcotic effect at high pressure, nitrogen shouldn’t be breathed by humans at depths below about 60 meters. So, at 200 meters, the breathing mix in the habitat will be 2 percent oxygen and 98 percent helium. But because of its very high thermal conductivity, “we need to heat helium to 31–32 °C to get a normal 21–22 °C internal temperature environment,” says Rick Goddard, director of engineering at Deep. “This creates a humid atmosphere, so porous materials become a breeding ground for mold”.

There are a host of other materials-related challenges, too. The materials can’t emit gases, and they must be acoustically insulating, lightweight, and structurally sound at high pressures.

Deep’s proving grounds are a former quarry in Tidenham, England, that has a maximum depth of 80 meters. Deep

There are also many electrical challenges. “Helium breaks certain electrical components with a high degree of certainty,” says Goddard. “We’ve had to pull devices to pieces, change chips, change [printed circuit boards], and even design our own PCBs that don’t off-gas.”

The electrical system will also have to accommodate an energy mix with such varied sources as floating solar farms and fuel cells on a surface buoy. Energy-storage devices present major electrical engineering challenges: Helium seeps into capacitors and can destroy them when it tries to escape during decompression. Batteries, too, develop problems at high pressure, so they will have to be housed outside the habitat in 1-atmosphere pressure vessels or in oil-filled blocks that prevent a differential pressure inside.

When you’re trying to be the SpaceX of the ocean, questions are naturally going to fly about the feasibility of such an ambition. How likely is it that Deep can follow through? At least one top authority, John Clarke, is a believer. “I’ve been astounded by the quality of the engineering methods and expertise applied to the problems at hand and I am enthusiastic about how DEEP is applying new technology,” says Clarke, who was lead scientist of the U.S. Navy Experimental Diving Unit. “They are advancing well beyond expectations…. I gladly endorse Deep in their quest to expand humankind’s embrace of the sea.”

2024 was the best year ever for robotics, which I’m pretty sure is not something that I’ve ever said before. But that’s the great thing about robotics—it’s always new, and it’s always exciting. What may be different about this year is the real sense that not only is AI going to change everything about robots, but that it will somehow make robots useful and practical and commercially viable. Is that true? Nobody knows yet! But it means that 2025 might actually be the best year ever for robotics, if you’ve ever wanted a robot to help you out at home or at work.

So as we look forward to 2025, here are some of our most interesting and impactful stories of the past year. And as always, thanks for reading!

Figure

This announcement from back in February is pretty much what set the tone for robotics in 2024. Figure’s Series B raise valued the company at a bonkers US $2.6 billion, and all of a sudden, humanoids were where it’s at. And by “it,” I mean everything, from funding to talent to breathless media coverage. The big question of 2024 was whether or not humanoids would be able to deliver on their promises, and that’s shaping up to be the big question of 2025, too.

Boston Dynamics

It didn’t take long for legendary robotics company Boston Dynamics to make it clear that they’re not going to be left behind when it comes to commercial humanoids. For a company that has been leading humanoid research longer than just about anyone but has bounced around from owner to owner over the last 10 years, we were a little unsure whether Atlas would ever be more than a research platform. But the new all-electric Atlas is designed for work, and we saw it get busy in 2024.

Boston Dynamics

As much as we’re excited for the new Atlas, the old hydraulic Atlas will always have a special place in our hearts. We’ve been through so much together, from the DRC to parkour to dancing. Electric robots are great and all, and I understand why they’re necessary for commercial applications, but all of that hydraulic power meant that hydraulic Atlas was able to move in dynamic ways that we may not see again for a very long time.

Nvidia

So we’ve got all these humanoid robots now with all this impressive hardware, but the really hard part (or one of them, anyway) is getting those robots to actually do something commercially useful in a safe and reliable way. Is training in simulation the answer? I don’t know, but NVIDIA sure thinks so, and they’ve made a huge commitment by investing in GR00T, a “general-purpose foundation model for humanoid robots.” And what does that mean, exactly? Nobody’s quite sure yet, but with NVIDIA behind it that’s enough to make the entire industry pay attention.

Evan Ackerman

With all the attention on humanoid robots right now, it’s critical to be able to separate real progress from hype. Unfortunately, there are all kinds of ways of cheating with robots. And there’s really nothing wrong with cheating with robots, as long as you tell people that the cheating is happening, and then (hopefully) cheat less and less as your robot gets better and better. In particular, we’re likely to see more and more teleoperation of humanoid robots (obviously or otherwise) because that’s one of the best ways of collecting training data: by having a human do it. And being able to tell that a human is doing it is an important skill to have.

Machina Labs

Some of my favorite robots are robots that are able to leverage their robotic-ness to not just do things that humans do, but also do things that humans cannot do. Robots have the patience and precision to work metal in ways that a very highly skilled human might be able to do once, but the robots (being robots) can do it over and over again. NASA is leveraging this capability to build complex toroidal tanks for spacecraft, but it has the potential to change anything that’s made out of sheet metal.

JPL-Caltech/ASU/NASA

One of the greatest robotics stories of the last several years has been Ingenuity, the little Mars helicopter. We’ve written extensively about how Ingenuity was designed, how it can fly on Mars, and how it just kept on flying, more than 50 times. But it couldn’t fly forever, and as Ingenuity was pushed to fly farther and farther over more challenging terrain, flight 72 was to be its last. After losing its ability to localize over some particularly featureless terrain, the little robot had a very rough landing. It lived to tell the tale, but not to fly again.

2024 was the best year ever for robotics, which I’m pretty sure is not something that I’ve ever said before. But that’s the great thing about robotics—it’s always new, and it’s always exciting. What may be different about this year is the real sense that not only is AI going to change everything about robots, but that it will somehow make robots useful and practical and commercially viable. Is that true? Nobody knows yet! But it means that 2025 might actually be the best year ever for robotics, if you’ve ever wanted a robot to help you out at home or at work.

So as we look forward to 2025, here are some of our most interesting and impactful stories of the past year. And as always, thanks for reading!

Figure

This announcement from back in February is pretty much what set the tone for robotics in 2024. Figure’s Series B raise valued the company at a bonkers US $2.6 billion, and all of a sudden, humanoids were where it’s at. And by “it,” I mean everything, from funding to talent to breathless media coverage. The big question of 2024 was whether or not humanoids would be able to deliver on their promises, and that’s shaping up to be the big question of 2025, too.

Boston Dynamics

It didn’t take long for legendary robotics company Boston Dynamics to make it clear that they’re not going to be left behind when it comes to commercial humanoids. For a company that has been leading humanoid research longer than just about anyone but has bounced around from owner to owner over the last 10 years, we were a little unsure whether Atlas would ever be more than a research platform. But the new all-electric Atlas is designed for work, and we saw it get busy in 2024.

Boston Dynamics

As much as we’re excited for the new Atlas, the old hydraulic Atlas will always have a special place in our hearts. We’ve been through so much together, from the DRC to parkour to dancing. Electric robots are great and all, and I understand why they’re necessary for commercial applications, but all of that hydraulic power meant that hydraulic Atlas was able to move in dynamic ways that we may not see again for a very long time.

Nvidia

So we’ve got all these humanoid robots now with all this impressive hardware, but the really hard part (or one of them, anyway) is getting those robots to actually do something commercially useful in a safe and reliable way. Is training in simulation the answer? I don’t know, but NVIDIA sure thinks so, and they’ve made a huge commitment by investing in GR00T, a “general-purpose foundation model for humanoid robots.” And what does that mean, exactly? Nobody’s quite sure yet, but with NVIDIA behind it that’s enough to make the entire industry pay attention.

Evan Ackerman

With all the attention on humanoid robots right now, it’s critical to be able to separate real progress from hype. Unfortunately, there are all kinds of ways of cheating with robots. And there’s really nothing wrong with cheating with robots, as long as you tell people that the cheating is happening, and then (hopefully) cheat less and less as your robot gets better and better. In particular, we’re likely to see more and more teleoperation of humanoid robots (obviously or otherwise) because that’s one of the best ways of collecting training data: by having a human do it. And being able to tell that a human is doing it is an important skill to have.

Machina Labs

Some of my favorite robots are robots that are able to leverage their robotic-ness to not just do things that humans do, but also do things that humans cannot do. Robots have the patience and precision to work metal in ways that a very highly skilled human might be able to do once, but the robots (being robots) can do it over and over again. NASA is leveraging this capability to build complex toroidal tanks for spacecraft, but it has the potential to change anything that’s made out of sheet metal.

JPL-Caltech/ASU/NASA

One of the greatest robotics stories of the last several years has been Ingenuity, the little Mars helicopter. We’ve written extensively about how Ingenuity was designed, how it can fly on Mars, and how it just kept on flying, more than 50 times. But it couldn’t fly forever, and as Ingenuity was pushed to fly farther and farther over more challenging terrain, flight 72 was to be its last. After losing its ability to localize over some particularly featureless terrain, the little robot had a very rough landing. It lived to tell the tale, but not to fly again.

Video Friday is your weekly selection of awesome robotics videos, collected by your friends at IEEE Spectrum robotics. We also post a weekly calendar of upcoming robotics events for the next few months. Please send us your events for inclusion.

Enjoy today’s videos!

Yours for US $100,000.

[ Unitree ]

Yes I know we’re sharing some of these holiday videos are a little late, but I deserve a little bit of time off, don’t I? No, you’re right, and I feel shame. But please enjoy these extra holiday videos anyway, starting with Santa’s Little Helper from ETHZ RSL.

Okay but seriously where do I get one of those little plush Anymals!

[ RSL ]

Merry Christmas from the Kepler humanoid robot!

[ Kepler Robotics ]

[ Flexiv ]

[ IHMC ]

Thanks, Robert!

[ PAL Robotics ]

[ DARPA ]

[ Innate ]

[ Norwegian University of Science and Technology post on LinkedIn ]

Thanks, Kostas!

[ Robot Era ]

Thanks, Ni Tao!

[ Osaka University ]

[ Paper via IEEE Robotics and Automation magazine in IEEE Xplore ]

[ Guillaume Loquin ] via [ Engadget ]

This is a big deal.

[ Ekso Bionics ]

[ Sanctuary AI ]

[ Pudu Robotics ]

[ EngineAI ]

[ Cybathlon ]

At the Kanda Myoujin Shrine in Tokyo, Aibos and their owners take part in the Shichi-go-san festival, which celebrates children (and robots!) at 3, 5, and 7 years old.

[ Aibo ]

Video Friday is your weekly selection of awesome robotics videos, collected by your friends at IEEE Spectrum robotics. We also post a weekly calendar of upcoming robotics events for the next few months. Please send us your events for inclusion.

Enjoy today’s videos!

Yours for US $100,000.

[ Unitree ]

Yes I know we’re sharing some of these holiday videos are a little late, but I deserve a little bit of time off, don’t I? No, you’re right, and I feel shame. But please enjoy these extra holiday videos anyway, starting with Santa’s Little Helper from ETHZ RSL.

Okay but seriously where do I get one of those little plush Anymals!

[ RSL ]

Merry Christmas from the Kepler humanoid robot!

[ Kepler Robotics ]

[ Flexiv ]

[ IHMC ]

Thanks, Robert!

[ PAL Robotics ]

[ DARPA ]

[ Innate ]

[ Norwegian University of Science and Technology post on LinkedIn ]

Thanks, Kostas!

[ Robot Era ]

Thanks, Ni Tao!

[ Osaka University ]

[ Paper via IEEE Robotics and Automation magazine in IEEE Xplore ]

[ Guillaume Loquin ] via [ Engadget ]

This is a big deal.

[ Ekso Bionics ]

[ Sanctuary AI ]

[ Pudu Robotics ]

[ EngineAI ]

[ Cybathlon ]

At the Kanda Myoujin Shrine in Tokyo, Aibos and their owners take part in the Shichi-go-san festival, which celebrates children (and robots!) at 3, 5, and 7 years old.

[ Aibo ]

Video Friday is your weekly selection of awesome robotics videos, collected by your friends at IEEE Spectrum robotics. We also post a weekly calendar of upcoming robotics events for the next few months. Please send us your events for inclusion.

Enjoy today’s videos!

[ FZI ]

Thanks, Georg!

[ Fraunhofer IOSB ]

Thanks, Janko!

There’s some thrilling action in this Christmas video from the PUT Mobile Robotics Laboratory, and the trick to put the lights on the tree is particularly clever. Enjoy!

[ PUT MRL ]

Thanks, Dominik!

[ Northern Robotics Laboratory ]

The Learning Systems and Robotics Lab has made a couple of robot holiday videos based on the research that they’re doing:

[ Crowd Navigation ]

[ Learning with Contacts ]

Thanks, Sepehr!

[ DFKI ]

[ Clearpath Robotics ]

[ PAL Robotics ]

Thanks, Rugilė!

[ ArtiMinds ]

[ FANUC ]

Perhaps not technically a holiday video, until you consider how all that stuff you ordered online is actually getting to you.

[ Agility Robotics ]

[ Quanser ]

[ Kawasaki Robotics ]

The robotics students at Queen’s University’s Ingenuity Labs Research Institute put together a 4K Holiday Robotics Lab Fireplace video, and unlike most fireplace videos, stuff actually happens in this one.

[ Ingenuity Labs ]

Thanks, Joshua!

Video Friday is your weekly selection of awesome robotics videos, collected by your friends at IEEE Spectrum robotics. We also post a weekly calendar of upcoming robotics events for the next few months. Please send us your events for inclusion.

Enjoy today’s videos!

[ FZI ]

Thanks, Georg!

[ Fraunhofer IOSB ]

Thanks, Janko!

There’s some thrilling action in this Christmas video from the PUT Mobile Robotics Laboratory, and the trick to put the lights on the tree is particularly clever. Enjoy!

[ PUT MRL ]

Thanks, Dominik!

[ Northern Robotics Laboratory ]

The Learning Systems and Robotics Lab has made a couple of robot holiday videos based on the research that they’re doing:

[ Crowd Navigation ]

[ Learning with Contacts ]

Thanks, Sepehr!

[ DFKI ]

[ Clearpath Robotics ]

[ PAL Robotics ]

Thanks, Rugilė!

[ ArtiMinds ]

[ FANUC ]

Perhaps not technically a holiday video, until you consider how all that stuff you ordered online is actually getting to you.

[ Agility Robotics ]

[ Quanser ]

[ Kawasaki Robotics ]

The robotics students at Queen’s University’s Ingenuity Labs Research Institute put together a 4K Holiday Robotics Lab Fireplace video, and unlike most fireplace videos, stuff actually happens in this one.

[ Ingenuity Labs ]

Thanks, Joshua!

This is a sponsored article brought to you by Amazon.

Innovation often begins as a spark of an idea—a simple “what if” that grows into something transformative. But turning that spark into a fully realized solution requires more than just ingenuity. It requires resources, collaboration, and a relentless drive to bridge the gap between concept and execution. At Amazon, these ingredients come together to create breakthroughs that not only solve today’s challenges but set the stage for the future.

“Innovation doesn’t just happen because you have a good idea,” said Valerie Samzun, a leader in Amazon’s Fulfillment Technologies and Robotics (FTR) division. “It happens because you have the right team, the right resources, and the right environment to bring that idea to life.”

This philosophy underpins Amazon’s approach to robotics, exemplified by Robin, a groundbreaking robotic system designed to tackle some of the most complex logistical challenges in the world. Robin’s journey, from its inception to deployment in fulfillment centers worldwide, offers a compelling look at how Amazon fosters innovation at scale.

Amazon’s fulfillment centers handle millions of items daily, each destined for a customer expecting precision and speed. The scale and complexity of these operations are unparalleled. Items vary widely in size, shape, and weight, creating an unpredictable and dynamic environment where traditional robotic systems often falter.

“Robots are great at consistency,” Jason Messinger, robotics senior manager explained. “But what happens when every task is different? That’s the reality of our fulfillment centers. Robin had to be more than precise—it had to be adaptable.”

Robin was designed to pick and sort items with speed and accuracy, but its capabilities extend far beyond basic functionality. The system integrates cutting-edge technologies in artificial intelligence, computer vision, and mechanical engineering to learn from its environment and improve over time. This ability to adapt was crucial for operating in fulfillment centers, where no two tasks are ever quite the same.

“When we designed Robin, we weren’t building for perfection in a lab,” Messinger said. “We were building for the chaos of the real world. That’s what makes it such an exciting challenge.”

Robin’s development was a collaborative effort involving teams of roboticists, data scientists, mechanical engineers, and operations specialists. This multidisciplinary approach allowed the team to address every aspect of Robin’s performance, from the algorithms powering its decision-making to the durability of its mechanical components.

“Robin is more than a robot. It’s a learning system. Every pick makes it smarter, faster, and better.” —Valerie Samzun, Amazon

“At Amazon, you don’t work in silos,” both Messinger and Samzun noted. Samzun continued, “every problem is tackled from multiple angles, with input from people who understand the technology, the operations, and the end user. That’s how you create something that truly works.”

This collaboration extended to testing and deployment. Robin was not confined to a controlled environment but was tested in live settings that replicated the conditions of Amazon’s fulfillment centers. Engineers could see Robin in action, gather real-time data, and refine the system iteratively.

“Every deployment teaches us something,” Messinger said. “Robin didn’t just evolve on paper—it evolved in the field. That’s the power of having the resources and infrastructure to test at scale.”

For many of the engineers and researchers involved in Robin’s development, the opportunity to work at Amazon represented a significant shift from their previous experiences. Unlike academic settings, where projects often remain theoretical, or smaller companies, where resources may be limited, Amazon offers the scale, speed, and impact that few other organizations can match.

Learn more about becoming part of Amazon’s Team →

“One of the things that drew me to Amazon was the chance to see my work in action,” said Megan Mitchell, who leads a team of manipulation hardware and systems engineers for Amazon Robotics. “Working in R&D, I spent years exploring novel concepts, but usually didn’t get to see those translate to the real world. At Amazon, I get to take ideas to the field in a matter of months.”

This sense of purpose is a recurring theme among Amazon’s engineers. The company’s focus on creating solutions that have a tangible impact—on operations, customers, and the industry as a whole—resonates with those who want their work to matter.

“At Amazon, you’re not just building technology—you’re building the future,” Mitchell said. “That’s an incredibly powerful motivator. You know that what you’re doing isn’t just theoretical—it’s making a difference.”

In addition to the impact of their work, engineers at Amazon benefit from access to unparalleled resources. From state-of-the-art facilities to vast amounts of real-world data, Amazon provides the tools necessary to tackle even the most complex challenges.

“If you need something to make the project better, Amazon makes it happen. That’s a game-changer,” said Messinger.

The culture of collaboration and iteration is another draw. Engineers at Amazon are encouraged to take risks, experiment, and learn from failure. This iterative approach not only accelerates innovation but also creates an environment where creativity thrives.

During its development, Robin was not confined to a controlled environment but was tested in live settings that replicated the conditions of Amazon’s fulfillment centers. Engineers could see Robin in action, gather real-time data, and refine the system iteratively.Amazon

Since its deployment, Robin has revolutionized operations in Amazon’s fulfillment centers. The robot has performed billions of picks, demonstrating reliability, adaptability, and efficiency. Each item it handles provides valuable data, allowing the system to continuously improve.

“Robin is more than a robot,” Samzun said. “It’s a learning system. Every pick makes it smarter, faster, and better.”

Robin’s impact extends beyond efficiency. By taking over repetitive and physically demanding tasks, the system has improved safety for Amazon’s associates. This has been a key priority for Amazon, which is committed to creating a safe and supportive environment for its workforce.

“When Robin picks an item, it’s not just about speed or accuracy,” Samzun explained. “It’s about making the workplace safer and the workflow smoother. That’s a win for everyone.”

Robin’s success is just the beginning. The lessons learned from its development are shaping the future of robotics at Amazon, paving the way for even more advanced systems. These innovations will not only enhance operations but also set new standards for what robotics can achieve.

“At Amazon, you feel like you’re a part of something bigger. You’re not just solving problems—you’re creating solutions that matter.” —Jason Messinger, Amazon

“This isn’t just about one robot,” Mitchell said. “It’s about building a platform for continuous innovation. Robin showed us what’s possible, and now we’re looking at how to go even further.”

For the engineers and researchers involved, Robin’s journey has been transformative. It has provided an opportunity to work on cutting-edge technology, solve complex problems, and make a meaningful impact—all while being part of a team that values creativity and collaboration.

“At Amazon, you feel like you’re a part of something bigger,” said Messinger. “You’re not just solving problems—you’re creating solutions that matter.”

Robin’s story is a testament to the power of ambition, collaboration, and execution. It demonstrates that with the right resources and mindset, even the most complex challenges can be overcome. But more than that, it highlights the unique role Amazon plays in shaping the future of robotics and logistics.

“Innovation isn’t just about having a big idea,” Samzun said. “It’s about turning that idea into something real, something that works, and something that makes a difference. That’s what Robin represents, and that’s what we do every day at Amazon.”

Robin isn’t just a robot—it’s a symbol of what’s possible when brilliant minds come together to solve real-world problems. As Amazon continues to push the boundaries of what robotics can achieve, Robin’s legacy will be felt in every pick, every delivery, and every step toward a more efficient and connected future.

Learn more about becoming part of Amazon’s Team.

This is a sponsored article brought to you by Amazon.

Innovation often begins as a spark of an idea—a simple “what if” that grows into something transformative. But turning that spark into a fully realized solution requires more than just ingenuity. It requires resources, collaboration, and a relentless drive to bridge the gap between concept and execution. At Amazon, these ingredients come together to create breakthroughs that not only solve today’s challenges but set the stage for the future.

“Innovation doesn’t just happen because you have a good idea,” said Valerie Samzun, a leader in Amazon’s Fulfillment Technologies and Robotics (FTR) division. “It happens because you have the right team, the right resources, and the right environment to bring that idea to life.”

This philosophy underpins Amazon’s approach to robotics, exemplified by Robin, a groundbreaking robotic system designed to tackle some of the most complex logistical challenges in the world. Robin’s journey, from its inception to deployment in fulfillment centers worldwide, offers a compelling look at how Amazon fosters innovation at scale.

Amazon’s fulfillment centers handle millions of items daily, each destined for a customer expecting precision and speed. The scale and complexity of these operations are unparalleled. Items vary widely in size, shape, and weight, creating an unpredictable and dynamic environment where traditional robotic systems often falter.

“Robots are great at consistency,” Jason Messinger, robotics senior manager explained. “But what happens when every task is different? That’s the reality of our fulfillment centers. Robin had to be more than precise—it had to be adaptable.”

Robin was designed to pick and sort items with speed and accuracy, but its capabilities extend far beyond basic functionality. The system integrates cutting-edge technologies in artificial intelligence, computer vision, and mechanical engineering to learn from its environment and improve over time. This ability to adapt was crucial for operating in fulfillment centers, where no two tasks are ever quite the same.

“When we designed Robin, we weren’t building for perfection in a lab,” Messinger said. “We were building for the chaos of the real world. That’s what makes it such an exciting challenge.”

Robin’s development was a collaborative effort involving teams of roboticists, data scientists, mechanical engineers, and operations specialists. This multidisciplinary approach allowed the team to address every aspect of Robin’s performance, from the algorithms powering its decision-making to the durability of its mechanical components.

“Robin is more than a robot. It’s a learning system. Every pick makes it smarter, faster, and better.” —Valerie Samzun, Amazon

“At Amazon, you don’t work in silos,” both Messinger and Samzun noted. Samzun continued, “every problem is tackled from multiple angles, with input from people who understand the technology, the operations, and the end user. That’s how you create something that truly works.”

This collaboration extended to testing and deployment. Robin was not confined to a controlled environment but was tested in live settings that replicated the conditions of Amazon’s fulfillment centers. Engineers could see Robin in action, gather real-time data, and refine the system iteratively.

“Every deployment teaches us something,” Messinger said. “Robin didn’t just evolve on paper—it evolved in the field. That’s the power of having the resources and infrastructure to test at scale.”

For many of the engineers and researchers involved in Robin’s development, the opportunity to work at Amazon represented a significant shift from their previous experiences. Unlike academic settings, where projects often remain theoretical, or smaller companies, where resources may be limited, Amazon offers the scale, speed, and impact that few other organizations can match.

Learn more about becoming part of Amazon’s Team →

“One of the things that drew me to Amazon was the chance to see my work in action,” said Megan Mitchell, who leads a team of manipulation hardware and systems engineers for Amazon Robotics. “Working in R&D, I spent years exploring novel concepts, but usually didn’t get to see those translate to the real world. At Amazon, I get to take ideas to the field in a matter of months.”

This sense of purpose is a recurring theme among Amazon’s engineers. The company’s focus on creating solutions that have a tangible impact—on operations, customers, and the industry as a whole—resonates with those who want their work to matter.

“At Amazon, you’re not just building technology—you’re building the future,” Mitchell said. “That’s an incredibly powerful motivator. You know that what you’re doing isn’t just theoretical—it’s making a difference.”

In addition to the impact of their work, engineers at Amazon benefit from access to unparalleled resources. From state-of-the-art facilities to vast amounts of real-world data, Amazon provides the tools necessary to tackle even the most complex challenges.

“If you need something to make the project better, Amazon makes it happen. That’s a game-changer,” said Messinger.

The culture of collaboration and iteration is another draw. Engineers at Amazon are encouraged to take risks, experiment, and learn from failure. This iterative approach not only accelerates innovation but also creates an environment where creativity thrives.

During its development, Robin was not confined to a controlled environment but was tested in live settings that replicated the conditions of Amazon’s fulfillment centers. Engineers could see Robin in action, gather real-time data, and refine the system iteratively.Amazon

Since its deployment, Robin has revolutionized operations in Amazon’s fulfillment centers. The robot has performed billions of picks, demonstrating reliability, adaptability, and efficiency. Each item it handles provides valuable data, allowing the system to continuously improve.

“Robin is more than a robot,” Samzun said. “It’s a learning system. Every pick makes it smarter, faster, and better.”

Robin’s impact extends beyond efficiency. By taking over repetitive and physically demanding tasks, the system has improved safety for Amazon’s associates. This has been a key priority for Amazon, which is committed to creating a safe and supportive environment for its workforce.

“When Robin picks an item, it’s not just about speed or accuracy,” Samzun explained. “It’s about making the workplace safer and the workflow smoother. That’s a win for everyone.”

Robin’s success is just the beginning. The lessons learned from its development are shaping the future of robotics at Amazon, paving the way for even more advanced systems. These innovations will not only enhance operations but also set new standards for what robotics can achieve.

“At Amazon, you feel like you’re a part of something bigger. You’re not just solving problems—you’re creating solutions that matter.” —Jason Messinger, Amazon

“This isn’t just about one robot,” Mitchell said. “It’s about building a platform for continuous innovation. Robin showed us what’s possible, and now we’re looking at how to go even further.”

For the engineers and researchers involved, Robin’s journey has been transformative. It has provided an opportunity to work on cutting-edge technology, solve complex problems, and make a meaningful impact—all while being part of a team that values creativity and collaboration.

“At Amazon, you feel like you’re a part of something bigger,” said Messinger. “You’re not just solving problems—you’re creating solutions that matter.”

Robin’s story is a testament to the power of ambition, collaboration, and execution. It demonstrates that with the right resources and mindset, even the most complex challenges can be overcome. But more than that, it highlights the unique role Amazon plays in shaping the future of robotics and logistics.

“Innovation isn’t just about having a big idea,” Samzun said. “It’s about turning that idea into something real, something that works, and something that makes a difference. That’s what Robin represents, and that’s what we do every day at Amazon.”

Robin isn’t just a robot—it’s a symbol of what’s possible when brilliant minds come together to solve real-world problems. As Amazon continues to push the boundaries of what robotics can achieve, Robin’s legacy will be felt in every pick, every delivery, and every step toward a more efficient and connected future.

Learn more about becoming part of Amazon’s Team.

The Modified Agile for Hardware Development (MAHD) Framework is the ultimate solution for hardware teams seeking the benefits of Agile without the pitfalls of applying software-centric methods. Traditional development approaches, like waterfall, often result in delayed timelines, high risks, and misaligned priorities. Meanwhile, software-based Agile frameworks fail to account for hardware's complexity. MAHD resolves these challenges with a tailored process that blends Agile principles with hardware-specific strategies.

Central to MAHD is its On-ramp process, a five-step method designed to kickstart projects with clarity and direction. Teams define User Stories to capture customer needs, outline Product Attributes to guide development, and use the Focus Matrix to link solutions to outcomes. Iterative IPAC cycles, a hallmark of the MAHD Framework, ensure risks are addressed early and progress is continuously tracked. These cycles emphasize integration, prototyping, alignment, and customer validation, providing structure without sacrificing flexibility.

MAHD has been successfully implemented across diverse industries, from medical devices to industrial automation, delivering products up to 50% faster while reducing risk. For hardware teams ready to adopt Agile methods that work for their unique challenges, this ebook provides the roadmap to success.

The Modified Agile for Hardware Development (MAHD) Framework is the ultimate solution for hardware teams seeking the benefits of Agile without the pitfalls of applying software-centric methods. Traditional development approaches, like waterfall, often result in delayed timelines, high risks, and misaligned priorities. Meanwhile, software-based Agile frameworks fail to account for hardware's complexity. MAHD resolves these challenges with a tailored process that blends Agile principles with hardware-specific strategies.

Central to MAHD is its On-ramp process, a five-step method designed to kickstart projects with clarity and direction. Teams define User Stories to capture customer needs, outline Product Attributes to guide development, and use the Focus Matrix to link solutions to outcomes. Iterative IPAC cycles, a hallmark of the MAHD Framework, ensure risks are addressed early and progress is continuously tracked. These cycles emphasize integration, prototyping, alignment, and customer validation, providing structure without sacrificing flexibility.

MAHD has been successfully implemented across diverse industries, from medical devices to industrial automation, delivering products up to 50% faster while reducing risk. For hardware teams ready to adopt Agile methods that work for their unique challenges, this ebook provides the roadmap to success.

Video Friday is your weekly selection of awesome robotics videos, collected by your friends at IEEE Spectrum robotics. We also post a weekly calendar of upcoming robotics events for the next few months. Please send us your events for inclusion.

Enjoy today’s videos!

We wrote an article about an earlier concept version of this thing a few years back if you’d like more detail about it.

[ NASA ]

[ Sanctuary AI ]

[ Clone Robotics ]

[ Suzumori Endo Lab ]

[ LucidSim ]

[ Science Robotics ]

[ Paper authors from University of Leeds and University College London ]

Thanks, Chengxu!

Happy 60th birthday to MIT CSAIL!

[ MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ]

Yup, humanoid progress can move quickly when you put your mind to it.

[ MagicLab ]

[ Sung Robotics Lab ]

From now on I will open doors like the robot in this video.

[ Humanoids 2024 ]

[ NASA ]

Our time is limited when it comes to flying drones, but we haven’t been surpassed by AI yet.

[ Team BlackSheep ]

Daniele Pucci from IIT discusses iCub and ergoCub as part of the industrial panel at Humanoids 2024.

[ ergoCub ]

Video Friday is your weekly selection of awesome robotics videos, collected by your friends at IEEE Spectrum robotics. We also post a weekly calendar of upcoming robotics events for the next few months. Please send us your events for inclusion.

Enjoy today’s videos!

We wrote an article about an earlier concept version of this thing a few years back if you’d like more detail about it.

[ NASA ]

[ Sanctuary AI ]

[ Clone Robotics ]

[ Suzumori Endo Lab ]

[ LucidSim ]

[ Science Robotics ]

[ Paper authors from University of Leeds and University College London ]

Thanks, Chengxu!

Happy 60th birthday to MIT CSAIL!

[ MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ]

Yup, humanoid progress can move quickly when you put your mind to it.

[ MagicLab ]

[ Sung Robotics Lab ]

From now on I will open doors like the robot in this video.

[ Humanoids 2024 ]

[ NASA ]

Our time is limited when it comes to flying drones, but we haven’t been surpassed by AI yet.

[ Team BlackSheep ]

Daniele Pucci from IIT discusses iCub and ergoCub as part of the industrial panel at Humanoids 2024.

[ ergoCub ]

The ability to detect a nearby presence without seeing or touching it may sound fantastical—but it’s a real ability that some creatures have. A family of African fish known as Mormyrids are weakly electric, and have special organs that can locate a nearby prey, whether it’s in murky water or even hiding in the mud. Now scientists have created an artificial sensor system inspired by nature’s original design. The development could find use one day in robotics and smart prosthetics to locate items without relying on machine vision.

“We developed a new strategy for 3D motion positioning by electronic skin, bio-inspired by ‘electric fish,’” says Xinge Yu, an associate professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at the City University of Hong Kong. The team described their sensor, which relies on capacitance to detect an object regardless of its conductivity, in a paper published on 14 November in Nature.

One layer of the sensor acts as a transmitter, generating an electrical field that extends beyond the surface of the device. Another layer acts as a receiver, able to detect both the direction and the distance to an object. This allows the sensor system to locate the object in three-dimensional space.

The e-skin sensor includes several layers, including a receiver and a transmitter.Jingkun Zhou, Jian Li et al.

The sensor electrode layers are made from a biogel that is printed on both sides of a dielectric substrate made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicon-based polymer that is commonly used in biomedical applications. The biogel layers receive their ability to transmit and receive electrical signals from a pattern of microchannels on their surface. The end result is a sensor that is thin, flexible, soft, stretchable, and transparent. These features make it suitable for a wide range of applications where an object-sensing system needs to conform to an irregular surface, like the human body.

The capacitive field around the sensor is disrupted when an object comes within range, which in turn can be detected by the receiver. The magnitude in the change of signal indicates the distance to the target. By using multiple sensors in an array, the system can determine the position of the target in three dimensions. The system created in this study is able to detect objects up to 10 centimeters away when used in air. The range increases when used underwater, to as far as 1 meter.

Jingkun Zhou, Jian Li et al.

To be functional, the sensors also require a separate controller component that is connected via silver or copper wires. The controller provides several functions. It creates the driving signal used to activate the transmitting layers. It also uses 16-bit analog-to-digital converters to collect the signals from the receiving layers. This data is then processed by a microcontroller unit attached to the sensor array, where it computes the position of the target object and sends that information via a Bluetooth Low Energy transmitter to a smartphone or other device. (Rather than send the raw data to the end device for computation, which would require more energy).

Power is provided by an integrated lithium-ion battery that is recharged wirelessly via a coil of copper wire. The system is designed to consume minimal amounts of electrical power. The controller is less flexible and transparent than the sensors, but by being encapsulated in PDMS, it is both waterproof and biocompatible.

The system works best when detecting objects about 8 millimeters in diameter. Objects smaller than 4 mm might not be detected accurately, and the response time for sensing objects larger than 8 mm can increase significantly. This could currently limit practical uses for the system to things like tracking finger movements for human-machine interfaces. Future development would be needed to detect larger targets.

The system can detect objects behind a cloth or paper barrier, but other environmental factors can degrade performance. Changes in air humidity and electromagnetic interference from people or other devices within 40 cm of the sensor can degrade accuracy.

The researchers hope that this sensor could one day open up a new range of wearable sensors, including devices for human-machine interfaces and thin and flexible e-skin.

The ability to detect a nearby presence without seeing or touching it may sound fantastical—but it’s a real ability that some creatures have. A family of African fish known as Mormyrids are weakly electric, and have special organs that can locate a nearby prey, whether it’s in murky water or even hiding in the mud. Now scientists have created an artificial sensor system inspired by nature’s original design. The development could find use one day in robotics and smart prosthetics to locate items without relying on machine vision.

“We developed a new strategy for 3D motion positioning by electronic skin, bio-inspired by ‘electric fish,’” says Xinge Yu, an associate professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at the City University of Hong Kong. The team described their sensor, which relies on capacitance to detect an object regardless of its conductivity, in a paper published on 14 November in Nature.

One layer of the sensor acts as a transmitter, generating an electrical field that extends beyond the surface of the device. Another layer acts as a receiver, able to detect both the direction and the distance to an object. This allows the sensor system to locate the object in three-dimensional space.

The e-skin sensor includes several layers, including a receiver and a transmitter.Jingkun Zhou, Jian Li et al.

The sensor electrode layers are made from a biogel that is printed on both sides of a dielectric substrate made of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicon-based polymer that is commonly used in biomedical applications. The biogel layers receive their ability to transmit and receive electrical signals from a pattern of microchannels on their surface. The end result is a sensor that is thin, flexible, soft, stretchable, and transparent. These features make it suitable for a wide range of applications where an object-sensing system needs to conform to an irregular surface, like the human body.

The capacitive field around the sensor is disrupted when an object comes within range, which in turn can be detected by the receiver. The magnitude in the change of signal indicates the distance to the target. By using multiple sensors in an array, the system can determine the position of the target in three dimensions. The system created in this study is able to detect objects up to 10 centimeters away when used in air. The range increases when used underwater, to as far as 1 meter.

Jingkun Zhou, Jian Li et al.

To be functional, the sensors also require a separate controller component that is connected via silver or copper wires. The controller provides several functions. It creates the driving signal used to activate the transmitting layers. It also uses 16-bit analog-to-digital converters to collect the signals from the receiving layers. This data is then processed by a microcontroller unit attached to the sensor array, where it computes the position of the target object and sends that information via a Bluetooth Low Energy transmitter to a smartphone or other device. (Rather than send the raw data to the end device for computation, which would require more energy).

Power is provided by an integrated lithium-ion battery that is recharged wirelessly via a coil of copper wire. The system is designed to consume minimal amounts of electrical power. The controller is less flexible and transparent than the sensors, but by being encapsulated in PDMS, it is both waterproof and biocompatible.

The system works best when detecting objects about 8 millimeters in diameter. Objects smaller than 4 mm might not be detected accurately, and the response time for sensing objects larger than 8 mm can increase significantly. This could currently limit practical uses for the system to things like tracking finger movements for human-machine interfaces. Future development would be needed to detect larger targets.

The system can detect objects behind a cloth or paper barrier, but other environmental factors can degrade performance. Changes in air humidity and electromagnetic interference from people or other devices within 40 cm of the sensor can degrade accuracy.

The researchers hope that this sensor could one day open up a new range of wearable sensors, including devices for human-machine interfaces and thin and flexible e-skin.